1932

Abstract

Urban and periurban ocean developments impact 1.5% of the global exclusive economic zones, and the demand for ocean space and resources is increasing. As we strive for a more sustainable future, it is imperative that we better design, manage, and conserve urban ocean spaces for both humans and nature. We identify three key objectives for more sustainable urban oceans: reduction of urban pressures, protection and restoration of ocean ecosystems, and support of critical ecosystem services. We describe an array of emerging evidence-based approaches, including greening grayinfrastructure, restoring habitats, and developing biotechnologies. We then explore new economic instruments and incentives for supporting these new approaches and evaluate their feasibility in delivering these objectives. Several of these tools have the potential to help bring nature back to the urban ocean while also addressing some of the critical needs of urban societies, such as climate adaptation, seafood production, clean water, and recreation, providing both human and environmental benefits in some of our most impacted ocean spaces.

Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-marine-032020-020015
2021-01-03
2024-03-29
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/marine/13/1/annurev-marine-032020-020015.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-marine-032020-020015&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

Literature Cited

  1. Abelson A, Halpern BS, Reed DC, Orth RJ, Kendrick GA et al. 2016. Upgrading marine ecosystem restoration using ecological-social concepts. BioScience 66:156–63
    [Google Scholar]
  2. Able KW, Manderson JP, Studholme AL 1998. The distribution of shallow water juvenile fishes in an urban estuary: the effects of manmade structures in the lower Hudson River. Estuaries 21:731–44
    [Google Scholar]
  3. Airoldi L, Abbiati M, Beck MW, Hawkins SJ, Jonsson PR et al. 2005. An ecological perspective on the deployment and design of low-crested and other hard coastal defence structures. Coast. Eng. 52:1073–87
    [Google Scholar]
  4. Airoldi L, Beck MW. 2007. Loss, status and trends for coastal marine habitats of Europe. Oceanogr. Mar. Biol. Annu. Rev. 45:345–405
    [Google Scholar]
  5. Airoldi L, Bulleri F. 2011. Anthropogenic disturbance can determine the magnitude of opportunistic species responses on marine urban infrastructures. PLOS ONE 6:e22985
    [Google Scholar]
  6. Airoldi L, Ponti M, Abbiati M 2016. Conservation challenges in human dominated seascapes: the harbour and coast of Ravenna. Reg. Stud. Mar. Sci. 8:308–18
    [Google Scholar]
  7. Airoldi L, Turon X, Perkol-Finkel S, Rius M 2015. Corridors for aliens but not for natives: effects of marine urban sprawl at a regional scale. Divers. Distrib. 21:755–68
    [Google Scholar]
  8. Aitken SN, Whitlock MC. 2013. Assisted gene flow to facilitate local adaptation to climate change. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Evol. Syst. 44:367–88
    [Google Scholar]
  9. Al Heialy Y. 2016. Kuwait: multi-billion sea city ready in 25 years. Construction Week June 26. https://www.constructionweekonline.com/article-39724-kuwait-multi-billion-sea-city-ready-in-25-years
    [Google Scholar]
  10. Anthony K, Bay LK, Costanza R, Firn J, Gunn J et al. 2017. New interventions are needed to save coral reefs. Nat. Ecol. Evol. 1:1420–22
    [Google Scholar]
  11. Arelli A, Nuzzo A, Sabia C, Banat IM, Zanaroli G, Fava F 2018. Optimization of washing conditions with biogenic mobilizing agents for marine fuel-contaminated beach sands. N. Biotechnol. 43:13–22
    [Google Scholar]
  12. Argue BJ, Arce SM, Lotz JM, Moss SM 2002. Selective breeding of Pacific white shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei) for growth and resistance to Taura Syndrome Virus. Aquaculture 204:447–60
    [Google Scholar]
  13. Atalah J, Hopkins GA, Fletcher LM, Castinel A, Forrest BM 2015. Concepts for biocontrol in marine environments: is there a way forward. ? Manag. Biol. Invasions 6:1–12
    [Google Scholar]
  14. Atalah J, Newcombe EM, Hopkins GA, Forrest BM 2014. Potential biocontrol agents for biofouling on artificial structures. Biofouling 30:999–1010
    [Google Scholar]
  15. Azubuike CC, Chikere CB, Okpokwasili GC 2016. Bioremediation techniques-classification based on site of application: principles, advantages, limitations and prospects. World J. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 32:180
    [Google Scholar]
  16. Baier LE. 2020. Saving Species on Private Lands: Unlocking Incentives to Conserve Wildlife and Their Habitats Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield
  17. Baine M. 2001. Artificial reefs: a review of their design, application, management and performance. Ocean Coast. Manag. 44:241–59
    [Google Scholar]
  18. Barausse A, Grechi L, Martinello N, Musner T, Smania D et al. 2015. An integrated approach to prevent the erosion of salt marshes in the lagoon of Venice. Int. J. Environ. Qual. 18:43–54
    [Google Scholar]
  19. Barbier EB, Burgess JC, Dean TJ 2018. How to pay for saving biodiversity. Science 360:486–88
    [Google Scholar]
  20. Basconi L, Cadier C, Guerrero-Limón G 2020. Challenges in marine restoration ecology: how techniques, assessment metrics, and ecosystem valuation can lead to improved restoration success. YOUMARES 9–The Oceans: Our Research, Our Future: Proceedings of the 2018 Conference for YOUng MArine RESearcher in Oldenburg, Germany S Jungblut, V Liebich, M Bode-Dalby 83–99 Cham, Switz: Springer
    [Google Scholar]
  21. Bayraktarov E, Saunders MI, Abdullah S, Mills M, Beher J et al. 2016. The cost and feasibility of marine coastal restoration. Ecol. Appl. 26:1055–74
    [Google Scholar]
  22. Beacham AM, Vickers LH, Monaghan JM 2019. Vertical farming: a summary of approaches to growing skywards. J. Hortic. Sci. Biotechnol. 94:277–83
    [Google Scholar]
  23. Beck MW, Losada IJ, Menéndez P, Reguero BG, Díaz-Simal P, Fernández F 2018. The global flood protection savings provided by coral reefs. Nat. Commun. 9:2186
    [Google Scholar]
  24. Beck MW, Quast O, Pfliegner K 2019. Ecosystem-Based Adaptation and Insurance: Success, Challenges and Opportunities Bonn, Ger: Dtsch. Ges. Int. Zusammenarb.
  25. Benedetti A, Bramanti L, Tsounis G, Faimali M, Pavanello G et al. 2011. Applying cathodically polarised substrata to the restoration of a high value coral. Biofouling 27:799–809
    [Google Scholar]
  26. Bilkovic DM, Mitchell MM. 2013. Ecological tradeoffs of stabilized salt marshes as a shoreline protection strategy: effects of artificial structures on macrobenthic assemblages. Ecol. Eng. 61:469–81
    [Google Scholar]
  27. Birch GF, Lee J, Tanner E, Fortune J, Munksgaard N et al. 2020. Sediment metal enrichment and ecological risk assessment of ten ports and estuaries in the World Harbours Project. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 155:111129
    [Google Scholar]
  28. Bishop MJ, Mayer-Pinto M, Airoldi L, Firth LB, Morris RL et al. 2017. Effects of ocean sprawl on ecological connectivity: impacts and solutions. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 492:7–30
    [Google Scholar]
  29. Blumberg AF, Bruno MS. 2018. The Urban Ocean: The Interaction of Cities with Water Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
  30. Bolund P, Hunhammar S. 1999. Ecosystem services in urban areas. Ecol. Econ. 29:293–301
    [Google Scholar]
  31. Borsje BW, van Wesenbeeck BK, Dekker F, Paalvast P, Bouma TJ et al. 2011. How ecological engineering can serve in coastal protection. Ecol. Eng. 37:113–22
    [Google Scholar]
  32. Bouma TJ, van Belzen J, Balke T, Zhu Z, Airoldi L et al. 2014. Identifying knowledge gaps hampering application of intertidal habitats in coastal protection: opportunities & steps to take. Coast. Eng. 87:147–57
    [Google Scholar]
  33. Bowman DMJS, Garnett ST, Barlow S, Bekessy SA, Bellairs SM et al. 2017. Renewal ecology: conservation for the Anthropocene. Restor. Ecol. 25:674–80
    [Google Scholar]
  34. Breitburg D, Campillos M, Castillo-Briceno P, Chiva S, Collins M et al. 2021. Climate pressures: extreme climate events and pressures from changes in physical and chemical properties of the ocean. The Second Global Integrated Marine Assessment: World Ocean Assessment II New York: UN. Forthcoming
    [Google Scholar]
  35. Bridges TS, Wagner PW, Burks-Copes KA, Bates ME, Collier ZA et al. 2015. Use of Natural and Nature-Based Features (NNBF) for Coastal Resilience Washington, DC: Eng. Res. Dev. Cent., US Army Corps Eng.
  36. Browder G, Ozment S, Bescos IR, Gartner T, Lange GM 2019. Integrating Green and Gray: Creating Next Generation Infrastructure Washington, DC: World Bank Group and World Resour. Inst.
  37. Buck BH, Krause G, Michler-Cieluch T, Brenner M, Buchholz CM et al. 2008. Meeting the quest for spatial efficiency: progress and prospects of extensive aquaculture within offshore wind farms. Helgol. Mar. Res. 62:269–81
    [Google Scholar]
  38. Bugnot AB, Hose GC, Walsh CJ, Floerl O, French K et al. 2019. Urban impacts across realms: making the case for inter-realm monitoring and management. Sci. Total Environ. 648:711–19
    [Google Scholar]
  39. Bugnot AB, Mayer-Pinto M, Airoldi L, Heery EC, Johnston ELet al 2020. Current and projected global extent of marine built structures. Nat. Sustain In press. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-020-00595-1
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  40. Bulleri F, Airoldi L. 2005. Artificial marine structures facilitate the spread of a non-indigenous green alga, Codium fragile ssp. tomentosoides, in the north Adriatic Sea. J. Appl. Ecol 42:1063–72
    [Google Scholar]
  41. Bulleri F, Batten S, Connell S, Benedetti-Cecchi L, Gibbons M, Nugues MM et al. 2020. Human pressures and the emergence of novel marine ecosystems. Oceanogr. Mar. Biol. Annu. Rev. In press
    [Google Scholar]
  42. Bulleri F, Chapman MG. 2010. The introduction of coastal infrastructure as a driver of change in marine environments. J. Appl. Ecol. 47:26–35
    [Google Scholar]
  43. Bulleri F, Eriksson BK, Queirós A, Airoldi L, Arenas F et al. 2018. Harnessing positive species interactions as a tool against climate-driven loss of coastal biodiversity. PLOS Biol 16:e2006852
    [Google Scholar]
  44. Burcharth HF, Hawkins SJ, Zanuttigh B, Lamberti A 2007. Environmental Design Guidelines for Low Crested Coastal Structures Amsterdam: Elsevier
  45. Callow JA, Callow ME. 2011. Trends in the development of environmentally friendly fouling-resistant marine coatings. Nat. Commun. 2:244
    [Google Scholar]
  46. Campbell AH, Marzinelli EM, Vergés A, Coleman MA, Steinberg PD 2014. Towards restoration of missing underwater forests. PLOS ONE 9:e84106
    [Google Scholar]
  47. Chapman MG, Underwood AJ. 2011. Evaluation of ecological engineering of “armoured” shorelines to improve their value as habitat. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 400:302–13
    [Google Scholar]
  48. Charlier RH, Chaineux MCP, Morcos S 2006. Panorama of the history of coastal protection. J. Coast. Res. 21:79–111
    [Google Scholar]
  49. Chee SY, Othman AG, Sim YK, Mat Adam AN, Firth LB 2017. Land reclamation and artificial islands: walking the tightrope between development and conservation. Glob. Ecol. Conserv. 12:80–95
    [Google Scholar]
  50. Clim. Bonds Init 2019. 2018 green bond market summary Rep., Clim. Bonds Init London: https://www.climatebonds.net/files/reports/2018_green_bond_market_highlights.pdf
  51. Cohen-Shacham E, Walters G, Janzen C, Maginnis S 2016. Nature-Based Solutions to Address Global Societal Challenges Gland, Switz: Int. Union Conserv. Nat.
  52. Coleman MA, Wood G, Filbee-Dexter K, Minne AJP, Goold HD et al. 2020. Restore or redefine: future trajectories for restoration. Front. Mar. Sci. 7:237
    [Google Scholar]
  53. Colgan CS, Beck MW, Narayan S 2017. Financing Natural Infrastructure for Coastal Flood Damage Reduction London: Lloyd's Tercentenary Res. Found.
  54. Cordell JR, Toft JD, Munsch SH, Goff M 2017. Benches, beaches, and bumps: how habitat monitoring and experimental science can inform urban seawall design. Living Shorelines: The Science and Management of Nature-Based Coastal Protection DM Bilkovic, MM Mitchell, MK La Peyre, JD Toft 419–36 Boca Raton, FL: CRC
    [Google Scholar]
  55. Costanza R, D'Arge R, de Groot R, Farber S, Grasso M et al. 1998. The value of the world's ecosystem services and natural capital. Nature 387:253–60
    [Google Scholar]
  56. Costanza R, de Groot R, Sutton P, van der Ploeg S, Anderson SJ et al. 2014. Changes in the global value of ecosystem services. Glob. Environ. Change 26:152–58
    [Google Scholar]
  57. Crowder LB, Osherenko G, Young OR, Airamé S, Norse EA et al. 2006. Resolving mismatches in U.S. governance. Science 313:617–18
    [Google Scholar]
  58. Cuomo V, Merrill J, Palomba I, Perretti A 1993. Systematic collection of Ulva and mariculture of Porphyra: biotechnology against eutrophication in the Venice lagoon. Int. J. Environ. Stud. 43:141–49
    [Google Scholar]
  59. Dafforn KA. 2017. Eco-engineering and management strategies for marine infrastructure to reduce establishment and dispersal of non-indigenous species. Manag. Biol. Invasions 8:153–61
    [Google Scholar]
  60. Dafforn KA, Glasby TM, Airoldi L, Rivero NK, Mayer-Pinto M, Johnston EL 2015a. Marine urbanization: an ecological framework for designing multifunctional artificial structures. Front. Ecol. Environ. 13:82–90
    [Google Scholar]
  61. Dafforn KA, Glasby TM, Johnston EL 2012. Comparing the invasibility of experimental “reefs” with field observations of natural reefs and artificial structures. PLOS ONE 7:e38124
    [Google Scholar]
  62. Dafforn KA, Mayer-Pinto M, Morris RL, Waltham NJ 2015b. Application of management tools to integrate ecological principles with the design of marine infrastructure. J. Environ. Manag. 158:61–73
    [Google Scholar]
  63. Dai J, Wang CM, Utsunomiya T, Duan W 2018. Review of recent research and developments on floating breakwaters. Ocean Eng 158:132–51
    [Google Scholar]
  64. de-Bashan LE, Hernandez JP, Bashan Y 2012. The potential contribution of plant growth-promoting bacteria to reduce environmental degradation – a comprehensive evaluation. Appl. Soil Ecol. 61:171–89
    [Google Scholar]
  65. Dennis HD, Evans AJ, Banner AJ, Moore PJ 2018. Reefcrete: reducing the environmental footprint of concretes for eco-engineering marine structures. Ecol. Eng. 120:668–78
    [Google Scholar]
  66. Dobretsov S, Abed RMM, Voolstra CR 2013. The effect of surface colour on the formation of marine micro and macrofouling communities. Biofouling 29:617–27
    [Google Scholar]
  67. Duarte CM, Agusti S, Barbier E, Britten GL, Castilla JC et al. 2020. Rebuilding marine life. Nature 580:39–51
    [Google Scholar]
  68. Duarte CM, Losada IJ, Hendriks IE, Mazarrasa I, Marbà N 2013a. The role of coastal plant communities for climate change mitigation and adaptation. Nat. Clim. Change 3:961–68
    [Google Scholar]
  69. Duarte CM, Pitt KA, Lucas CH, Purcell JE, Uye SI et al. 2013b. Is global ocean sprawl a cause of jellyfish blooms. ? Front. Ecol. Environ. 11:91–97
    [Google Scholar]
  70. Eglington A, Israel R, Vartanov R 1998. Towards sustainable development for the Murmansk region. Ocean Coast. Manag. 41:257–71
    [Google Scholar]
  71. Elliott M, Burdon D, Hemingway KL, Apitz SE 2007. Estuarine, coastal and marine ecosystem restoration: confusing management and science – a revision of concepts. Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci. 74:349–66
    [Google Scholar]
  72. Erftemeijer PLA, Agastian T, Yamamoto H, Cambridge ML, Hoekstra R et al. 2020. Mangrove planting on dredged material: three decades of nature-based coastal defence along a causeway in the Arabian Gulf. Mar. Freshw. Res. 71:106272
    [Google Scholar]
  73. Eur. Comm 2016. LIFE financial instruments: Natural Capital Financing Facility. European Commission https://ec.europa.eu/environment/archives/life/funding/financial_instruments/ncff.htm
    [Google Scholar]
  74. Evans AJ, Firth LB, Hawkins SJ, Hall AE, Ironside JE et al. 2019. From ocean sprawl to blue-green infrastructure – a UK perspective on an issue of global significance. Environ. Sci. Policy 91:60–69
    [Google Scholar]
  75. Evans AJ, Garrod B, Firth LB, Hawkins SJ, Morris-Webb ES et al. 2017. Stakeholder priorities for multi-functional coastal defence developments and steps to effective implementation. Mar. Policy 75:143–55
    [Google Scholar]
  76. Fan X, Dai X, Yang G, Jia Z, Liu L, Sun N 2017. Detecting artificialization process and corresponding state changes of estuarine ecosystems based on naturalness assessment. Ocean Coast. Manag. 146:178–86
    [Google Scholar]
  77. FAO (Food Agric. Organ. UN) 2009. The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2008 Rome: FAO
  78. FEMA (Fed. Emerg. Manag. Admin.) 2014. Community Rating System Fact Sheet, FEMA Washington, DC:
  79. Ferrario F, Beck MW, Storlazzi CD, Micheli F, Shepard CC, Airoldi L 2014. The effectiveness of coral reefs for coastal hazard risk reduction and adaptation. Nat. Commun. 5:3794
    [Google Scholar]
  80. Filbee-Dexter K, Smajdor A. 2019. Ethics of assisted evolution in marine conservation. Front. Mar. Sci. 6:20
    [Google Scholar]
  81. Firth LB, Airoldi L, Bulleri F, Challinor S, Chee S-Y et al. 2020. Greening of grey infrastructure should not be used as a Trojan horse to facilitate coastal development. J. Appl. Ecol. 57:176268
    [Google Scholar]
  82. Firth LB, Knights AM, Bridger D, Evans AJ, Mieszkowska N et al. 2016. Ocean sprawl: challenges and opportunities for biodiversity management in a changing world. Oceanogr. Mar. Biol. Annu. Rev. 54:193–269
    [Google Scholar]
  83. Firth LB, Thompson RC, Bohn K, Abbiati M, Airoldi L et al. 2014. Between a rock and a hard place: environmental and engineering considerations when designing coastal defence structures. Coast. Eng. 87:122–35
    [Google Scholar]
  84. Friess DA. 2016. Ecosystem services and disservices of mangrove forests: insights from historical colonial observations. Forests 7:183
    [Google Scholar]
  85. Fulford RS, Breitburg DL, Newell RIE, Kemp WM, Luckenbach M 2007. Effects of oyster population restoration strategies on phytoplankton biomass in Chesapeake Bay: a flexible modeling approach. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 336:43–61
    [Google Scholar]
  86. Ganju NK. 2019. Marshes are the new beaches: integrating sediment transport into restoration planning. Estuaries Coasts 42:917–26
    [Google Scholar]
  87. Gaston KJ, Davies TW, Bennie J, Hopkins J 2012. Reducing the ecological consequences of night-time light pollution: options and developments. J. Appl. Ecol. 49:1256–66
    [Google Scholar]
  88. Gifford S, Dunstan RH, O'Connor W, Koller CE, MacFarlane GR 2007. Aquatic zooremediation: deploying animals to remediate contaminated aquatic environments. Trends Biotechnol 25:60–65
    [Google Scholar]
  89. Gittman RK, Peterson CH, Currin CA, Fodrie FJ, Piehler MF, Bruno JF 2016. Living shorelines can enhance the nursery role of threatened estuarine habitats. Ecol. Appl. 26:249–63
    [Google Scholar]
  90. Glasby TM, Connell SD, Holloway MG, Hewitt CL 2007. Nonindigenous biota on artificial structures: Could habitat creation facilitate biological invasions. ? Mar. Biol. 151:887–95
    [Google Scholar]
  91. Goldsmith W, Gray D, McCullah J 2014. Bioengineering Case Studies: Sustainable Stream Bank and Slope Stabilization New York: Springer
  92. Gribben PE, Thomas T, Pusceddu A, Bonechi L, Bianchelli S et al. 2018. Below-ground processes control the success of an invasive seaweed. J. Ecol. 106:2082–95
    [Google Scholar]
  93. Grizzle RE, Rasmussen A, Martignette AJ, Ward K, Coen LD 2018. Mapping seston depletion over an intertidal eastern oyster (Crassostrea virginica) reef: implications for restoration of multiple habitats. Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci. 212:265–72
    [Google Scholar]
  94. Grobman YJ, Kozlovsky R, Levy H 2017. A multifunctional computational approach to waterfront design. Archit. Sci. Rev. 60:446–59
    [Google Scholar]
  95. Hallegatte S, Green C, Nicholls RJ, Corfee-Morlot J 2013. Future flood losses in major coastal cities. Nat. Clim. Change 3:802–6
    [Google Scholar]
  96. Hamm L, Capobianco M, Dette HH, Lechuga A, Spanhoff R, Stive MJF 2002. A summary of European experience with shore nourishment. Coast. Eng. 47:237–64
    [Google Scholar]
  97. Hawkins SJ, Evans AJ, Moore J, Whittington M, Pack K et al. 2017. From the Torrey Canyon to today: a 50 year retrospective of recovery from the oil spill and interaction with climate-driven fluctuations on Cornish rocky shores. Int. Oil Spill Conf. Proc. 2017:74–103
    [Google Scholar]
  98. Hawkins SJ, O'Shaughnessy KA, Adams LA, Langston WJ, Bray S et al. 2020. Recovery of an urbanised estuary: clean-up, de-industrialisation and restoration of redundant dock-basins in the Mersey. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 156:111150
    [Google Scholar]
  99. Heery EC, Bishop MJ, Critchley LP, Bugnot AB, Airoldi L et al. 2017. Identifying the consequences of ocean sprawl for sedimentary habitats. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 492:31–48
    [Google Scholar]
  100. Herrera D, Cunniff S, DuPont C, Cohen B, Gangi D et al. 2019. Designing an environmental impact bond for wetland restoration in Louisiana. Ecosyst. Serv. 35:260–76
    [Google Scholar]
  101. Highfield WE, Brody SD. 2017. Determining the effects of the FEMA Community Rating System program on flood losses in the United States. Int. J. Disaster Risk Reduct. 21:396–404
    [Google Scholar]
  102. Hobbs RJ, Harris JA. 2001. Restoration ecology: repairing the earth's ecosystems in the new millennium. Restor. Ecol. 9:239–46
    [Google Scholar]
  103. Hobbs RJ, Higgs E, Harris JA 2009. Novel ecosystems: implications for conservation and restoration. Trends Ecol. Evol. 24:599–605
    [Google Scholar]
  104. Holthus P. 2017. Blue Bonds: a growing investment vehicle. Sea Technol 58:7
    [Google Scholar]
  105. IFRC (Int. Fed. Red Cross Red Crescent Soc.) 2011. Mangrove Plantation in Viet Nam: Measuring Impact and Cost Benefit Geneva: IFRC
  106. Inst. Sustain. Infrastruct 2012. Envision V 2.0: A Rating System for Sustainable Infrastructure Washington, DC: Inst. Sustain. Infrastruct.
  107. Iyer V, Mathias K, Meyers D, Victurine R, Walsh M 2018. Finance Tools for Coral Reef Conservation: A Guide New York: Wildl. Conserv. Soc.
  108. Jacob C, Buffard A, Pioch S, Thorin S 2018. Marine ecosystem restoration and biodiversity offset. Ecol. Eng. 120:585–94
    [Google Scholar]
  109. Jebakumar JPP, Nandhagopal G, Babu BR, Ragumaran S, Ravichandran V 2018. Impact of coastal power plant cooling system on planktonic diversity of a polluted creek system. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 133:378–91
    [Google Scholar]
  110. Jones DA, Nithyanandan M, Williams I 2012. Sabah Al-Ahmad sea city Kuwait: development of a sustainable man-made coastal ecosystem in a saline desert. Aquat. Ecosyst. Heal. Manag. 15:Suppl. 184–92
    [Google Scholar]
  111. Jonkman SN, Hillen MM, Nicholls RJ, Kanning W, van Ledden M 2013. Costs of adapting coastal defences to sea-level rise—new estimates and their implications. J. Coast. Res. 290:1212–26
    [Google Scholar]
  112. Joseph I, Augustine A. 2020. Marine biotechnology for food. Genomics and Biotechnological Advances in Veterinary, Poultry, and Fisheries YS Malik, D Barh, V Azevedo, SMP Khurana 271–83 London: Academic
    [Google Scholar]
  113. Knight J, Dale P, Dwyer P, Marx S 2017. A conceptual approach to integrate management of ecosystem service and disservice in coastal wetlands. AIMS Environ. Sci. 4:431–42
    [Google Scholar]
  114. Krzemińska AE, Zaręba AD, Dzikowska A, Jarosz KR 2019. Cities of the future—bionic systems of new urban environment. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 26:8362–70
    [Google Scholar]
  115. Kull D, Gitay H, Bettencourt S, Reid R, Simpson A, McCall K 2016. Building resilience: World Bank Group experience in climate and disaster resilient development. Climate Change Adaptation Strategies – An Upstream-Downstream Perspective N Salzmann, C Huggel, SU Nussbaumer, G Ziervogel 255–70 Cham, Switz: Springer
    [Google Scholar]
  116. Lakshmi A, Rajagopalan R. 2000. Socio-economic implications of coastal zone degradation and their mitigation: a case study from coastal villages in India. Ocean Coast. Manag. 43:749–62
    [Google Scholar]
  117. Lara-Flores M, Rivera-Arriaga E. 2019. The use of genetically modified organisms for repopulation of species of commercial importance in aquatic environment: effects on genetic pool, risks to protected areas and policies for their proper management. Animal Genetics: Approaches and Limitations DL Pusta. London: IntechOpen https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.76441
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  118. Layman CA, Jud ZR, Archer SK, Riera D 2014. Provision of ecosystem services by human-made structures in a highly impacted estuary. Environ. Res. Lett. 9:044009
    [Google Scholar]
  119. Layton C, Coleman MA, Marzinelli EM, Steinberg PD, Swearer SE et al. 2020. Kelp forest restoration in Australia. Front. Mar. Sci. 7:74
    [Google Scholar]
  120. Lee TS, Toft JD, Cordell JR, Dethier MN, Adams JW, Kelly RP 2018. Quantifying the effectiveness of shoreline armoring removal on coastal biota of Puget Sound. PeerJ 6:e4275
    [Google Scholar]
  121. Lefcheck JS, Orth RJ, Dennison WC, Wilcox DJ, Murphy RR et al. 2018. Long-term nutrient reductions lead to the unprecedented recovery of a temperate coastal region. PNAS 115:3658–62
    [Google Scholar]
  122. Lindahl O, Hart R, Hernroth B, Kollberg S, Loo LO et al. 2005. Improving marine water quality by mussel farming: a profitable solution for Swedish society. Ambio 34:131–38
    [Google Scholar]
  123. Lister N, Muk-Pavic E. 2015. Sustainable artificial island concept for the Republic of Kiribati. Ocean Eng 98:78–87
    [Google Scholar]
  124. Loke LHL, Ladle RJ, Bouma TJ, Todd PA 2015. Creating complex habitats for restoration and reconciliation. Ecol. Eng. 77:307–13
    [Google Scholar]
  125. Macdonald JM. 1994. Artificial reef debate: habitat enhancement or waste disposal. ? Ocean Dev. Int. Law 25:87–118
    [Google Scholar]
  126. Macura B, Byström P, Airoldi L, Eriksson BK, Rudstam L, Støttrup JG 2019. Impact of structural habitat modifications in coastal temperate systems on fish recruitment: a systematic review. Environ. Evid. 8:14
    [Google Scholar]
  127. Mayer-Pinto M, Cole VJ, Johnston EL, Bugnot AB, Hurst H et al. 2018. Functional and structural responses to marine urbanisation. Environ. Res. Lett. 13:014009
    [Google Scholar]
  128. Mayer-Pinto M, Dafforn KA, Johnston EL 2019. A decision framework for coastal infrastructure to optimize biotic resistance and resilience in a changing climate. BioScience 69:833–43
    [Google Scholar]
  129. McCarty M, Ceci J, Streb C 2017. A case study and recommendation for large scale floating wetlands. Proceedings of the International Conference on Sustainable Infrastructure 20171–12 Reston, VA: Am. Soc. Civ. Eng.
    [Google Scholar]
  130. McCook LJ, Lian J, Lei X, Chen Z, Xue G et al. 2019. Marine protected areas in southern China: upgrading conservation effectiveness in the ‘eco-civilization’ era. Aquat. Conserv. Mar. Freshw. Ecosyst. 29:Suppl. 233–43
    [Google Scholar]
  131. McCreless E, Beck MW. 2017. Rethinking our global coastal investment portfolio. J. Ocean Coast. Econ. 3:6
    [Google Scholar]
  132. Mcdonald RI, Kareiva P, Forman RTT 2008. The implications of current and future urbanization for global protected areas and biodiversity conservation. Biol. Conserv. 141:1695–703
    [Google Scholar]
  133. McDonald T, Jonson J, Dixon KW 2016. National standards for the practice of ecological restoration in Australia. Restor. Ecol. 24:Suppl. 1S4–32
    [Google Scholar]
  134. McManus RS, Archibald N, Comber S, Knights AM, Thompson RC, Firth LB 2018. Partial replacement of cement for waste aggregates in concrete coastal and marine infrastructure: a foundation for ecological enhancement. ? Ecol. Eng. 120:655–67
    [Google Scholar]
  135. Meeus SJ, Gulinck H. 2008. Semi-urban areas in landscape research: a review. Living Rev. Landsc. Res. 2:3
    [Google Scholar]
  136. Menéndez P, Losada IJ, Torres-Ortega S, Narayan S, Beck MW 2020. The global flood protection benefits of mangroves. Sci. Rep. 10:4404
    [Google Scholar]
  137. Meyer C. 2009. The greening of the concrete industry. Cem. Concr. Compos. 31:601–5
    [Google Scholar]
  138. Mijangos JL, Pacioni C, Spencer PBS, Craig MD 2015. Contribution of genetics to ecological restoration. Mol. Ecol. 24:22–37
    [Google Scholar]
  139. Miller RG, Hutchison ZL, Macleod AK, Burrows MT, Cook EJ et al. 2013. Marine renewable energy development: assessing the Benthic Footprint at multiple scales. Front. Ecol. Environ. 11:433–40
    [Google Scholar]
  140. Mineur F, Cook EJ, Minchin D, Bohn K, Macleod A, Maggs CA 2012. Changing coasts: marine aliens and artificial structures. Oceanogr. Mar. Biol. Annu. Rev. 50:189–234
    [Google Scholar]
  141. Moldan B, Janoušková S, Hák T 2012. How to understand and measure environmental sustainability: indicators and targets. Ecol. Indic. 17:4–13
    [Google Scholar]
  142. Morris RL, Bilkovic DM, Boswell MK, Bushek D, Cebrian J et al. 2019a. The application of oyster reefs in shoreline protection: Are we over-engineering for an ecosystem engineer. ? J. Appl. Ecol. 56:1703–11
    [Google Scholar]
  143. Morris RL, Heery EC, Loke LHL, Lau E, Strain EMA et al. 2019b. Design options, implementation issues and evaluating success of ecologically engineered shorelines. Oceanogr. Mar. Biol. Annu. Rev. 57:169–228
    [Google Scholar]
  144. Morris RL, Konlechner TM, Ghisalberti M, Swearer SE 2018. From grey to green: efficacy of eco-engineering solutions for nature-based coastal defence. Glob. Change Biol. 24:1827–42
    [Google Scholar]
  145. Moschella PS, Abbiati M, Åberg P, Airoldi L, Anderson JM et al. 2005. Low-crested coastal defence structures as artificial habitats for marine life: using ecological criteria in design. Coast. Eng. 52:1053–71
    [Google Scholar]
  146. Müllauer W, Beddoe RE, Heinz D 2012. Effect of carbonation, chloride and external sulphates on the leaching behaviour of major and trace elements from concrete. Cem. Concr. Compos. 34:618–26
    [Google Scholar]
  147. Munari C, Corbau C, Simeoni U, Mistri M 2011. Coastal defence through low crested breakwater structures: jumping out of the frying pan into the fire. ? Mar. Pollut. Bull. 62:1641–51
    [Google Scholar]
  148. Munsch SH, Cordell JR, Toft JD 2015. Effects of shoreline engineering on shallow subtidal fish and crab communities in an urban estuary: a comparison of armored shorelines and nourished beaches. Ecol. Eng. 81:312–20
    [Google Scholar]
  149. Munsch SH, Cordell JR, Toft JD 2017. Effects of shoreline armouring and overwater structures on coastal and estuarine fish: opportunities for habitat improvement. J. Appl. Ecol. 54:1373–84
    [Google Scholar]
  150. Narayan S, Beck MW, Reguero BG, Losada IJ, Van Wesenbeeck B et al. 2016. The effectiveness, costs and coastal protection benefits of natural and nature-based defences. PLOS ONE 11:e0154735
    [Google Scholar]
  151. Nat. Cap. Financ. Comm 2015. Natural Capital Financing Facility Fact Sheet, Nat. Cap. Financ. Comm., Eur. Comm Brussels: https://ec.europa.eu/environment/archives/life/funding/financial_instruments/documents/ncff_leaflet.pdf
  152. Naylor LA, Kippen H, Coombes MA, Horton B, MacArthur M, Jackson N 2017. Greening the grey: a framework for integrated green grey infrastructure (IGGI) Tech. Rep., Univ. Glasgow Glasgow, Scotl:.
  153. Neelamani S. 2018. Coastal erosion and accretion in Kuwait – problems and management strategies. Ocean Coast. Manag. 156:76–91
    [Google Scholar]
  154. Negro V, Martín-Antón M, del Campo JM, López-Gutiérrez JS, Esteban MD 2018. Crown walls in mass and reinforced concrete: the way to aesthetics in maritime works. Coasts, Marine Structures and Breakwaters: Realising the Potential K Burgess 471–80 London: Inst. Civ. Eng.
    [Google Scholar]
  155. Nehring S, Hesse KJ. 2008. Invasive alien plants in marine protected areas: the Spartina anglica affair in the European Wadden Sea. Biol. Invasions 10:937–50
    [Google Scholar]
  156. Neumann B, Vafeidis AT, Zimmermann J, Nicholls RJ 2015. Future coastal population growth and exposure to sea-level rise and coastal flooding - a global assessment. PLOS ONE 10:e0131375
    [Google Scholar]
  157. NIB (Nord. Invest. Bank) 2019. NIB issues first Nordic–Baltic Blue Bond New Release, Jan. 24, NIB Helsinki: https://www.nib.int/who_we_are/news_and_media/news_press_releases/3170/nib_issues_first_nordic-baltic_blue_bond
  158. Niemela J, Breuste JH, Guntenspergen G, McIntyre NE, Elmqvist T, James P 2011. Urban Ecology: Patterns, Processes, and Applications Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press
  159. Norse EA, Brooke S, Cheung WWL, Clark MR, Ekeland I et al. 2012. Sustainability of deep-sea fisheries. Mar. Policy 36:307–20
    [Google Scholar]
  160. Nunn AD, Clifton-Dey D, Cowx IG 2016. Managed realignment for habitat compensation: use of a new intertidal habitat by fishes. Ecol. Eng. 87:71–79
    [Google Scholar]
  161. Obura DO. 2001. Kenya. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 42:1264–78
    [Google Scholar]
  162. O'Donnell JED. 2017. Living shorelines: a review of literature relevant to New England coasts. J. Coast. Res. 332:435–51
    [Google Scholar]
  163. O'Shaughnessy KA, Hawkins SJ, Evans AJ, Hanley ME, Lunt P et al. 2020. Design catalogue for eco-engineering of coastal artificial structures: a multifunctional approach for stakeholders and end-users. Urban Ecosyst 23:431–443
    [Google Scholar]
  164. Park RS, Lee MS, Kim SG, Lee SM, An SH, Yang YT 2004. A study on the performance of floating twin-hull breakwaters including fish-cage. Proceedings of the Fourteenth International Offshore and Polar Engineering Conference694–700 Cupertino, CA: Int. Soc. Offshore Polar Eng.
    [Google Scholar]
  165. Parsons Brinckerhoff Aust., Thiess Serv 2002. Remediation of Lednez Site, Rhodes and Homebush Bay: Environmental Impact Statement Rhodes, Aust: Parsons Brinckerhoff Aust.
  166. Pearson S, Windupranata W, Pranowo SW, Putri A, Ma Y et al. 2016. Conflicts in some of the world harbours: What needs to happen next. ? Marit. Stud. 15:10
    [Google Scholar]
  167. Perkol-Finkel S, Ferrario F, Nicotera V, Airoldi L 2012. Conservation challenges in urban seascapes: promoting the growth of threatened species on coastal infrastructures. J. Appl. Ecol. 49:1457–66
    [Google Scholar]
  168. Perkol-Finkel S, Sella I. 2015. Harnessing urban coastal infrastructure for ecological enhancement. Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng. Marit. Eng. 168:102–10
    [Google Scholar]
  169. Perpetuo EA, Barbieri Souza CB, Oller Nascimento CA 2011. Engineering bacteria for bioremediation. Progress in Molecular and Environmental Bioengineering: From Analysis and Modeling to Technology Applications A Carpi 605–32 London: IntechOpen
    [Google Scholar]
  170. Petersen S, Krätschell A, Augustin N, Jamieson J, Hein JR, Hannington MD 2016. News from the seabed – geological characteristics and resource potential of deep-sea mineral resources. Mar. Policy 70:175–87
    [Google Scholar]
  171. Pioch S, Doumenge JP. 2010. Summary of French artificial reefs immersions since 1968, sites, volumes, types and costs. Global Change: Mankind-Marine Environment Interactions HJ Ceccaldi, I Dekeyser, M Girault, G Stora 125–27 Dordrecht, Neth: Springer
    [Google Scholar]
  172. Piwowarczyk J, Kronenberg J, Dereniowska MA 2013. Marine ecosystem services in urban areas: Do the strategic documents of Polish coastal municipalities reflect their importance. ? Landsc. Urban Plan. 109:85–93
    [Google Scholar]
  173. Potere D, Schneider A. 2007. A critical look at representations of urban areas in global maps. GeoJournal 69:55–80
    [Google Scholar]
  174. QY Res 2018. Global underwater hotels market size, status and forecast 2018–2025 Rep., QY Res., City of Industry, CA
  175. Reguero BG, Beck MW, Bresch DN, Calil J, Meliane I 2018. Comparing the cost effectiveness of nature-based and coastal adaptation: a case study from the Gulf Coast of the United States. PLOS ONE 13:e0192132
    [Google Scholar]
  176. Reguero BG, Beck MW, Schmid D, Stadtmüller D, Raepple J et al. 2020. Financing coastal resilience by combining nature-based risk reduction with insurance. Ecol. Econ. 169:106487
    [Google Scholar]
  177. Reguero BG, Losada IJ, Méndez FJ 2019. A recent increase in global wave power as a consequence of oceanic warming. Nat. Commun. 10:205
    [Google Scholar]
  178. Roca E, Villares M. 2012. Public perceptions of managed realignment strategies: the case study of the Ebro Delta in the Mediterranean basin. Ocean Coast. Manag. 60:38–47
    [Google Scholar]
  179. Rodin J, Brandenburg M. 2014. The Power of Impact Investing: Putting Markets to Work for Profit and Global Good Philadelphia: Wharton Sch. Press
  180. Rosado PM, Leite DCA, Duarte GAS, Chaloub RM, Jospin G et al. 2019. Marine probiotics: increasing coral resistance to bleaching through microbiome manipulation. ISME J 13:921–36
    [Google Scholar]
  181. Rosato A, Barone M, Negroni A, Brigidi P, Fava F et al. 2020. Microbial colonization of different microplastic types and biotransformation of sorbed PCBs by a marine anaerobic bacterial community. Sci. Total Environ. 705:135790
    [Google Scholar]
  182. Sadiq AA, Tyler J, Noonan DS, Norton RK, Cunniff SE, Czajkowski J 2020. Review of the Federal Emergency Management Agency's Community Rating System Program. Nat. Hazards Rev. 21:03119001
    [Google Scholar]
  183. Sardain A, Sardain E, Leung B 2019. Global forecasts of shipping traffic and biological invasions to 2050. Nat. Sustain. 2:274–82
    [Google Scholar]
  184. Satheesh S, Wesley SG. 2010. Influence of substratum colour on the recruitment of macrofouling communities. J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. UK 90:941–46
    [Google Scholar]
  185. Schoonees T, Gijón Mancheño A, Scheres B, Bouma TJ, Silva R et al. 2019. Hard structures for coastal protection, towards greener designs. Estuaries Coasts 42:1709–29
    [Google Scholar]
  186. Sclodnick T. 2020. 5 ways submersible pens can increase your farm value. Aquaculture America 2020601 Honolulu: Hawaii Aquac. Aquaponics Assoc. (Abstr.)
    [Google Scholar]
  187. Sella I, Perkol-Finkel S. 2015. Blue is the new green – ecological enhancement of concrete based coastal and marine infrastructure. Ecol. Eng. 84:260–72
    [Google Scholar]
  188. Seto KC, Fragkias M, Güneralp B, Reilly MK 2011. A meta-analysis of global urban land expansion. PLOS ONE 6:e23777
    [Google Scholar]
  189. Shen H, Jiang G, Wan X, Li H, Qiao Y et al. 2017. Response of the microbial community to bioturbation by benthic macrofauna on intertidal flats. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 488:44–51
    [Google Scholar]
  190. Shepard CC, Crain CM, Beck MW 2011. The protective role of coastal marshes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLOS ONE 6:e27374
    [Google Scholar]
  191. Shih SCW, Nicholls RJ. 2007. Urban managed realignment: application to the Thames Estuary, London. J. Coast. Res. 236:1525–34
    [Google Scholar]
  192. SIMS (Syd. Inst. Mar. Sci.) 2018. Habitat restoration. Sydney Institute of Marine Science http://engonet-sims.azurewebsites.net/page/115/habitat-restoration
    [Google Scholar]
  193. Sloane S. 2010. State Infrastructure Banks Lexington, KY: Counc. State Gov.
  194. Smith CS, Gittman RK, Neylan IP, Scyphers SB, Morton JP et al. 2017. Hurricane damage along natural and hardened estuarine shorelines: using homeowner experiences to promote nature-based coastal protection. Mar. Policy 81:350–58
    [Google Scholar]
  195. Smith L, Cornillon P, Rudnickas D, Mouw CB 2019. Evidence of environmental changes caused by Chinese island-building. Sci. Rep. 9:5295
    [Google Scholar]
  196. Sotka EE, Byers JE. 2019. Not so fast: promoting invasive species to enhance multifunctionality in a native ecosystem requires strong(er) scrutiny. Biol. Invasions 21:19–25
    [Google Scholar]
  197. Sousa AI, Valdemarsen T, Lillebø AI, Jørgensen L, Flindt MR 2017. A new marine measure enhancing Zostera marina seed germination and seedling survival. Ecol. Eng. 104:131–40
    [Google Scholar]
  198. Spalding MD, McIvor AL, Beck MW, Koch EW, Möller I et al. 2014. Coastal ecosystems: a critical element of risk reduction. Conserv. Lett. 7:293–301
    [Google Scholar]
  199. Steinberg PD, Airoldi L, Banks J, Leung KMY 2016. Introduction to the special issue on the World Harbour Project. Reg. Stud. Mar. Sci. 8:217–19
    [Google Scholar]
  200. Stive MJF, de Schipper MA, Luijendijk AP, Aarninkhof SGJ, van Gelder-Maas C et al. 2013. A new alternative to saving our beaches from sea-level rise: the Sand Engine. J. Coast. Res. 290:1001–8
    [Google Scholar]
  201. Strain EMA, Alexander KA, Kienker S, Morris R, Jarvis R et al. 2019a. Urban blue: a global analysis of the factors shaping people's perceptions of the marine environment and ecological engineering in harbours. Sci. Total Environ. 658:1293–305
    [Google Scholar]
  202. Strain EMA, Heath T, Steinberg PD, Bishop MJ 2018a. Eco-engineering of modified shorelines recovers wrack subsidies. Ecol. Eng. 112:26–33
    [Google Scholar]
  203. Strain EMA, Morris RL, Bishop MJ, Tanner E, Steinberg P et al. 2019b. Building blue infrastructure: assessing the key environmental issues and priority areas for ecological engineering initiatives in Australia's metropolitan embayments. J. Environ. Manag. 230:488–96
    [Google Scholar]
  204. Strain EMA, Olabarria C, Mayer-Pinto M, Cumbo V, Morris RL et al. 2018b. Eco-engineering urban infrastructure for marine and coastal biodiversity: Which interventions have the greatest ecological benefit. ? J. Appl. Ecol. 55:426–41
    [Google Scholar]
  205. Strusińska-Correia A. 2017. Tsunami mitigation in Japan after the 2011 Tōhoku Tsunami. Int. J. Disaster Risk Reduct. 22:397–411
    [Google Scholar]
  206. Sutton-Grier AE, Gittman RK, Arkema KK, Bennett RO, Benoit J et al. 2018. Investing in natural and nature-based infrastructure: building better along our coasts. Sustainability 10:523
    [Google Scholar]
  207. Sutton-Grier AE, Wowk K, Bamford H 2015. Future of our coasts: the potential for natural and hybrid infrastructure to enhance the resilience of our coastal communities, economies and ecosystems. Environ. Sci. Policy 51:137–48
    [Google Scholar]
  208. Syranidou E, Karkanorachaki K, Amorotti F, Avgeropoulos A, Kolvenbach B et al. 2019. Biodegradation of mixture of plastic films by tailored marine consortia. J. Hazard. Mater. 375:33–42
    [Google Scholar]
  209. Tagliapietra D, Baldan D, Barausse A, Buosi A, Curiel D et al. 2018. Protecting and restoring the salt marshes and seagrasses in the lagoon of Venice. Manag. Restor. Mediterr. Coast. Lagoons Eur. 10:39–65
    [Google Scholar]
  210. Temmerman S, Meire P, Bouma TJ, Herman PMJ, Ysebaert T, De Vriend HJ 2013. Ecosystem-based coastal defence in the face of global change. Nature 504:79–83
    [Google Scholar]
  211. ten Voorde M, do Carmo JSA, Neves MG 2009. Designing a preliminary multifunctional artificial reef to protect the Portuguese coast. J. Coast. Res. 251:69–79
    [Google Scholar]
  212. Todd PA, Heery EC, Loke LHL, Thurstan RH, Kotze DJ, Swan C 2019. Towards an urban marine ecology: characterizing the drivers, patterns and processes of marine ecosystems in coastal cities. Oikos 128:1215–42
    [Google Scholar]
  213. Tornero V, Hanke G. 2016. Chemical contaminants entering the marine environment from sea-based sources: a review with a focus on European seas. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 112:17–38
    [Google Scholar]
  214. UN 1982. United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982 Conv. Doc., UN New York: https://www.un.org/depts/los/convention_agreements/convention_overview_convention.htm
  215. UN 2016. The New Urban Agenda. Habitat III http://habitat3.org/the-new-urban-agenda
    [Google Scholar]
  216. US Fish Wildl. Serv 2020. Building a stronger coast. US Fish and Wildlife Service https://www.fws.gov/hurricane/sandy
    [Google Scholar]
  217. Vajhala S, Rhodes J. 2015. Leveraging catastrophe bonds as a mechanism for resilient infrastructure project finance Rep., Re:focus Partn San Diego, CA: http://www.refocuspartners.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/RE.bound-Program-Report-December-2015.pdf
  218. van Oppen MJH, Gates RD, Blackall LL, Cantin N, Chakravarti LJ et al. 2017. Shifting paradigms in restoration of the world's coral reefs. Glob. Change Biol. 23:3437–48
    [Google Scholar]
  219. Von Glasow R, Jickells TD, Baklanov A, Carmichael GR, Church TM et al. 2013. Megacities and large urban agglomerations in the coastal zone: interactions between atmosphere, land, and marine ecosystems. Ambio 42:13–28
    [Google Scholar]
  220. Wachsmuth D, Angelo H. 2018. Green and gray: new ideologies of nature in urban sustainability policy. Ann. Am. Assoc. Geogr. 108:1038–56
    [Google Scholar]
  221. Waterfr. Alliance 2015. Waterfront Edge Design Guidelines New York: Waterfr. Alliance
  222. WEF (World Econ. Forum) 2013. The Green Investment Report: The Ways and Means to Unlock Private Finance for Green Growth Geneva: WEF
  223. Willmott D. 2015. Are floating farms in our future. ? Smithsonian Magazine Sept. 1. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/innovation/are-floating-farms-our-future-180956476
    [Google Scholar]
  224. Wong JXW, Costantini F, Merloni N, Savelli L, Geelen D, Airoldi L 2018. The widespread and overlooked replacement of Spartina maritima by non-indigenous S. anglica and S. townsendii in north-western Adriatic saltmarshes. Biol. Invasions 20:1687–702
    [Google Scholar]
  225. Wood G, Marzinelli EM, Coleman MA, Campbell AH, Santini NS et al. 2019. Restoring subtidal marine macrophytes in the Anthropocene: trajectories and future-proofing. Mar. Freshw. Res. 70:936–51
    [Google Scholar]
  226. World Bank 2015. What are green bonds? Rep., World Bank Group Washington, DC:
  227. World Bank 2016. Managing coasts with natural solutions: guidelines for measuring and valuing the coastal protection services of mangroves and coral reefs Rep., World Bank Group Washington, DC:
  228. World Bank 2020. Crisis Response Window. World Bank https://ida.worldbank.org/financing/crisis-response-window
    [Google Scholar]
  229. Xia Y, Wen X, Zhang B, Yang Y 2018. Diversity and assembly patterns of activated sludge microbial communities: a review. Biotechnol. Adv. 36:1038–47
    [Google Scholar]
  230. Yoshida S, Hiraga K, Takehana T, Taniguchi I, Yamaji H et al. 2016. A bacterium that degrades and assimilates poly(ethylene terephthalate). Science 351:1196–99
    [Google Scholar]
  231. Zhao XL, Ning DZ, Zou QP, Qiao DS, Cai SQ 2019. Hybrid floating breakwater-WEC system: a review. Ocean Eng 186:106126
    [Google Scholar]
  232. Zohar Y, Tal Y, Schreier HJ, Steven CR, Stubblefield J, Place AR 2005. Commercially feasible urban recirculating aquaculture: addressing the marine sector. Urban Aquaculture B Costa-Pierce, A Desbonnet, P Edwards, D Baker 150–71 Wallingford, UK: Cent. Agric. Biosci. Int.
    [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-marine-032020-020015
Loading
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-marine-032020-020015
Loading

Data & Media loading...

Supplemental Material

Supplementary Data

  • Article Type: Review Article
This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error